Macrophages VS Bacteria

A.MACROPHAGES

Macrophages are single-nucleated (mononuclear) cells derived from the development / differentiation of monocytes, the defense cells of organisms that work on immunity.

Characteristics of Macrophages:

1.The cells are irregular in shape

2. Abundant cytoplasm

3. Presence of pseudopods

 

 

Macrophage Functions:

1. Doing phagocytosis. Phagocytosis

Macrophages damage and age cells, pu

Ing cell debris, foreign substances and glue particles

Bam.

 

2. It varies according to the location where it is found and the denomination received. However, it is important to note that all types carry out phagocytosis.

                    Two Types Of Macrophages

Macrophage Cell:

1. Cells that have the ability to eat a useless substance. This is because their cytoplasm contains a lot of lysosomes and phagosomes.

2. If you are active, you have the protruding needed for movement. Its function is as immunity.

Macrophage Cells in the Immune System

Macrophage Terms:

Macrophages (often also written as macrophages or macrophages; English: macrophage, MAC, from Greek: macros, "big eater" and Greek: phagein, "eat") are cells in the tissue derived from white blood cells called monocytes .

 

Difference between microphages and macrophages:

1.Microphages = Small polymorphonuclear phagocytes that live for several days.

 

2. Macrophages = Large phagocytes that start life as monocytes and live for a longer period.

 

Macrophages can also produce several substances that play an important role in regulating the immune system in response to foreign objects such as bacteria or objects from the body but are dangerous, such as dead cells. Macrophages have cool molecules, you know, they allow them to recognize bacteria, eat them and kill them and then destroy them. Just imagineif you don't have macrophages.

The macrophages that can regulate earlier also need to be regulated by other substances. Now these macrophages are flexible because they have two directions for their activation. It can act as a bacterial destroyer (which affects tissue damage, commonly called M1 activation) and can also be a deterrent to further tissue damage (commonly called M2). This is like a father who can be gentle or be firm with his family and these two characteristics are governed by different substances. Meanwhile, other cells in the immune system usually have only one trait. So, if its nature is not needed, the cell in question will be killed (Gordon, 2003).

The Role of Monocytes (Macrophages) in the Angiogenesis and Fibrosis Processes:

Monocytes will enter the tissue and become macrophages when there is inflammation. Macrophages are often only associated with their function to perform phagocytosis of foreign objects. However, macrophages have other functions, namely angiogenesis and fibrosis. In the process of angiogenesis, macrophages secrete tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), vascular

endothelial growth factor (VEGF),angiogenin, urokinase dan platelet derived growth factor (PDGF)

which will induce the formation of new blood vessels. In the fibrosis process, macrophages will secrete fibroblast growth factor, platelet derived growth factor (PDGF) and TGF-β (transforming growth factor beta) which will stimulate fibroblasts to produce collagen and elastin.

 

The mobilization and stimulation of fibroblasts is controlled by many growth factors. Fibroblast stimulation causes fibrosis. Fibrosis, or scar tissue formation, adds to the granulation tissue skeleton of new blood vessels and a loose extracellular matrix (ECM) that develops early at the site of recovery. One source of these factors is activated endothelium. However, and perhaps more importantly the growth factors that are also produced by inflammatory cells. In particular, macrophages are an important constituent of granulation tissue which in addition to cleaning extracellular debris and fibrin at the site of injury, macrophages are also

 

Chronic inflammatory processes in the oral cavity lead to proliferative growth. One of the components of chronic inflammation is monocytes as a source of macrophages. Monocytes are a form of leukocytes (white blood cells) that differ from granulocytes because of their core morphological structure and relatively agranular cytoplasm. In acute inflammation, monocytes at about the same time as the neutrophils begin to migrate but are less numerous and at a slow rate. Cell which is

 

 

the same, if it is in the blood it is called monocytes, if it is in exudate it is called macrophages. The monocyte-macrophage system (also known as reticuloendothelial) has an important function to cleanse the blood, lymph and interstitial spaces from foreign bodies, thus an important defense function. Not only that, macrophages also release growth factors and other substances that initiate and accelerate the formation of granulation tissue in the wound along with fibroblasts, producing growth factories that play a role in re-epithelialization and formation of new capillaries (angiogenesis) (Price SA and Wilson LM, 2006).

 

The Benefits Of Macrophages For Humans:

to phagocytosis of cellular and pathogens and to stimulate lymphocytes and other immune cells to respond to pathogens. Macrophages originate from circulating monocytes, which mature and differentiate and migrate to tissues.

 

Macrophage Abilities:

Macrophages are able to migrate out of the vascular system by crossing the cell membrane from the capillaries and entering the area between cells that is being targeted by pathogens. Neutrophils are the most efficient phagocytes followed by macrophages, and can digest a large number of bacteria or other cells. The binding of bacterial molecules to the surface receptors of macrophages triggers a process of ingestion and destruction of bacteria via "respiratory attack", causing the release of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Pathogens also stimulate macrophages to produce chemokines, which call on other phagocytic cells around the infected area.

Mekanisme Makrofag Sebagai Fagosit Dalam Membunuh Kuman:

 

 

 

A.Proses oksidatif ( oxygen dependent mechanisms )Proses  oksidatif  yang  terjadi  berupa  peningkatan  penggunaan  oksigen, peningkatan proses hexose monophosphate shunt ( HMPS ), peningkatan produksi  hydrogen  perokxide  (  H2O2  )  dan  produksi  beberapa  senyawa seperti     superoxide    anion,    hydroxyl    radicals,    singlet    oxygen,  myloperoxidase    yang    dapat    berinteraksi    sehingga    menghasilkan metabolit   oksigen   yang   toksik   sehingga   dapat   digunakan   untuk membunuh kuman.

 

B..Proses non oksidatif ( oxygen independent mechanism )Proses   non   oksidatif   berlangsung   dengan   bantuan   berbagai   protein seperti hydrolytic  enzyme,  defensins  (  cationic  protein  ),  lysozyme, lactoferrin  dan  nitric  oxid  synthase  (NOS). Pada  aktivitas  nitric  oxide synthase (NOS) diperlukan bantuan IFN- Ȗ dan TNF- Į tipe  I yang dapat meningkatkan produksi NO dari makrofag di organ limfe.

 

Phagocytosis process phases of macrophages:

 

1.Chemotaxis

Chemotaxis is the movement of phagocytes to the site of infection in response to various factors such as bacterial products and biochemical factors released on complement activation.

 

2. Adhesion (particles covered with opsonin) Adhesion is the process of attaching the phagocytic plasma membrane to the surface of microorganisms or other foreign bodies. Macrophages can easily phagocyte bacteria if they are coated first with certain plasma proteins that support adhesion. This coating process is called opsonization and the protein is called opsonin which is a component of the complement system and antibody molecules.

 

3.Ingesti (ingestion)

The process of ingestion of bacteria occurs because phagocytes form pseudopody protrusions on their plasma membrane, which then forms a sac that surrounds the bacteria when they are eaten. The bacteria are then confined in a sac called the phagosome (phagocytic vacuole). The walls of the phagosome are thus made up of the outer wall of the phagocyte.

 

 

 

4. Degranulation

When the phagosome enters the cytoplasm, it fuses with the lysosome and forms a phagolysosome, resulting in the killing of microbes by the lysosome enzyme on the phagolysosome and killing by ROS and NO. Within a few seconds after the fusion occurs degranulation and killing (killing) NADPH oxidase will change NADPH to NADP. This oxidation gives rise to H2O2. H2O2 is less powerful in killing microbes and requires the enzyme myeloperoxidase (MPO) found in the azuraphilic granules of neutrophils which convert H2O2 to hypochlorite (HOCL). Hypochlorite is a strong antimicrobial agent that destroys microbes by halogenation or by oxidation of proteins and lipid peroxidases.

 

Activated macrophages have several characteristics, including:

 

A.Killing ability increases against microorganisms

Killing against bacteria involves the process of phagocytosis and the formation of ROS. Cytokines such as IFN- ฀ will increase both endocytosis and phagocytosis by monocytes. Phagocytosis of certain particles can be increased by bacterial opsonization by coating the bacteria with IgG or complement molecules. IFN- causes increased expression of receptors with strong binding to the Fc portion of IgG. After entering the macrophages, the bacteria will be killed with ROS through the ROI pathway. Superoxide radicals, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radicals and singlet oxygen belong to the ROS group. ROS is very reactive so it can kill bacteria and destroy the cells. In this process more oxygen is needed (oxygen demand increases to 100 times), so the process is known as a respiratory burst. Nitric oxide synthase binds with tetrahydrobiopterin cofactor molecules, NOS bonds and this cofactor will convert L-arginine with the help of oxygen to form citrulline and NO. This NO is toxic to bacteria.26 This pathway is activated by IFN- ฀ and triggered by the presence of TNF.

 

B. Activated macrophages will stimulate inflammation

by secreting inflammatory mediators Platelet activating factor (PAF), prostaglandins and leukotrienes are lipids, some are synthesized by macrophages themselves and others are produced from plasma molecules in response to enzymes and related molecules.

 

produced by macrophages. For example, macrophages can produce tissue factors that can initiate the extrinsic clotting cascade. Thrombin as blood protease which is activated during the clotting cascade will cause neutrophils and endothelial cells to synthesize PAF. Administration of IFN- ฀ will increase the biosynthetic capacity of macrophages to form mediators such as tissue factors, due to the released mediators, local inflammation can occur.

 

 Activated Macrophage Process:

The process of activating macrophages is not a single process. Measurements for activated macrophages can be carried out, among others, the killing ability of the phagocytosed microbes. Macrophage activation results from an increase in the transcription of genes, because of an increase in the expression of these genes, macrophages can perform functions that cannot be performed by the same cell in a resting state. The potent macrophage activator cytokine is IFN-.

B.BACTERIA

Bacteria are a group of organisms that do not have a nuclear cell membrane. These organisms belong to the domain of prokaryotes and are very small (microscopic).

Characteristics of Bacteria:

1. Multicellular organisms.

2. Procaryotes (do not have a nuclear cell membrane).

3.Generally do not have chlorophyll.

4. Has a body size that varies between 0.12 to hundreds of microns generally has an average size of 1 to 5 microns.

5. Have a variety of body shapes.

6. Living free or parasites.

7. Those that live in extreme environments such as hot springs, craters or peat cell walls do not contain peptidoglycan.

8. The life of the cosmopolitan in various environments, the cell wall contains peptidoglycan.

9. The first common characteristics of bacteria, they are prokaryotic organisms (the cell nucleus is not covered in a special membrane) is also unicellular (or single-celled)

Bacteria have a plant-like cell wall which is composed or peptidoglycan and mucopolysaccharide.

10. Bacteria have endospores, namely capsules that appear when conditions are unfavorable as a shield against heat and natural disturbances.

11. In terms of size, bacteria in general are too small, such as Mycoplasma to be seen by the naked eye, which is about 0.5 micrometers, but and some are slightly larger, namely Epulopiscium fishelsoni, reaching a size of about 10-100 micrometers.

12. Another common characteristic of living bacteria is that they are parasitic creatures (need a host such as humans or animals) but some are free-living.

13. In general, bacteria do not have chlorophyll.

14.Bacterial habitat can live in harsh environments such as hot water, craters, peat.

15. Judging from the shape of the appearance, bacterial cells can look like bacilli (or rods), cocci (spherical), spirilum (spiral like a corkscrew), cocobacil (round and rod), and Vibrio (like a comma).

 

Function of Bacteria:

In fact, intestinal bacteria in our body have many functions, especially for health. They help us digest food and provide energy and vitamins. Bacteria that live in the intestine also function to prevent bad bacteria such as Salmonella, which cause infection.

    Role of Bacteria:

Actually, not all bacteria are harmful, but many bacteria are beneficial, and even become friends to human life.

 

1. Beneficial Bacteria:

-Bacteria

-Acid Producing Bacteria

-Bacteria In Milk Processing

-Nitrogen-Binding Bacteria

-Bacteria In Waste Treatment

-Bacteria and genetic engineering

-Production of Biogas

 

2. Harmful Bacteria:

-Pathogenic bacteria

-Bacteria parasites in animals and plants

The Types Of Bacteria

Structure Of Bacteria

 

Bacteria terms:

Bacteria (from the Latin bacterium; plural: bacteria), a group of organisms that do not have a nuclear cell membrane. These organisms belong to the domain of prokaryotes and are very small (microscopic), and have a large role in life on earth.

 

Difference between bacteria and viruses:

1.Bacteria

-Bacteria are small microorganisms that consist of a single cell. Bacteria are diverse and come in a variety of shapes and structural features.

 -Bacteria can grow and thrive in a variety of environments, including the human body.

  -The bacteria that were recorded to have existed about 3.5 billion years ago can also survive extreme conditions, such as very hot or very cold environments.

   -Bacteria that are harmful and cause infection in humans are called pathogenic bacteria.

    -But some are harmless and exist in the human body. Such as bacteria that are in the intestine and play a role in helping the digestive process.

    -Some infectious conditions are caused by bacteria, among others

 

sore throat, tuberculosis (TB) and urinary tract infections.

 

2.Virus

    -Meanwhile, although it can also take various forms, viruses are known as microorganisms that are smaller than bacteria.

    -Besides size, what distinguishes viruses from bacteria is, viruses need a host. They will reproduce by attaching to the host in the form of living cells or tissue.

    -Viruses depend on living on their host and therefore the virus is called parasitic. Where it will attack cells belonging to its host, and multiply in these cells.

-Some types of viruses even kill host cells as a way to reproduce.

    -Virus is also more assertive when attacking the cell. For example, certain viruses attack liver cells, other viruses attack the respiratory system. Or there are viruses that attack blood cells.

    -Several diseases caused by viruses, including COVID-19, AIDS and flu in general.

 

How Bacteria Reproduce:

Bacteria reproduce by binary fission. In this process, bacteria which are single cells will divide into two identical daughter cells. Binary fission begins when the bacterial DNA divides in half (replicates).

 

The bacterial cell then elongates and divides into two daughter cells each with DNA identical to the parent cell. Each daughter cell is a clone of the parent cell. When favorable conditions, such as the right temperature and nutrients are available, some bacteria such as Escherichia coli can divide every 20 minutes.

 

 

This means that in just 7 hours, one bacterium can produce 2,097,152 bacteria. After another hour, the number of bacteria will increase to 16,777,216. That's why we get sick quickly when pathogenic microbes attack our bodies.

The Benefits Of  Good Bacteria For Humans:

 

1.Helps digest breast milk Bifidobacteria are a type of good bacteria that first begin to grow in the baby's intestine. These bacteria function to digest healthy sugars in breast milk which are essential for growth.

 

2. Digest Bacterial fiber

certain in the body act as digesters of fiber which produce short chain fatty acids. It is important for health because it helps prevent additional health, reduces the risk of diabetes, heart disease, and cancer.

 

3. Regulate immunity

The good bacteria in digestion also help control how the immune system works so that the body is not prone to infection.

 

 

 

4. Controlling brain health New research shows good bacteria in the gut can also affect the central nervous system, which controls brain function.

 

 

 

Ability Bacteria:

 

1. Adhesive Bacteria

If a lizard, gecko or spider is able to stick to vertical surfaces with its feet, there is a bacteria that is a bacterial version of Spider-Man. This bacterium named C. crescentus originally lived in water, all types of water on Earth, then these microbes move with the help of a limb called flagellum to stick to the surface they encounter. According to research, C. crescentus has a bond strength of up to five tons per 1 square inch. In other words, a patch of microbial matter is small enough to lift bullets and a few cars off the ground.

 

2. Live Magnets

If there could be a superhero capable of controlling magnets like Magneto in the X-Men series, in the real world there are bacteria that can control magnets. These bacteria can control the nearest magnetic field, manipulate metal objects, and move only by utilizing the Earth's magnetic field.

 

This bacterium is called Magnetotatic which is able to accumulate iron oxide molecules and combine them to form small 'gravel' called magnetosomes. In this way, these microorganisms can sense the Earth's magnetic field and are able to move in the direction of the poles based on how much or not food is there. Magnetotatic itself is a real-world superhero. The reason is, scientists have tried to eliminate bad bacteria in the body with magnetosomes and are instantly killed by emitting "magnetic heat". Eventually the bad bacteria die.

 

3. Computer On

It turns out that bacteria are living computers. This is because when bacteria destroy enemy viruses, they store a small portion of the viral DNA in their own bodies. With this, these microbes learn to recognize similar threats in the future.

 

Taking advantage of this mechanism, scientists from Harvard University were the first to cultivate 600,000 Escherichia coli bacteria. When attempted to electrocute the bacteria, the bacteria activate their defense mechanisms, then absorb artificial DNA containing the coded human hand images and horse videos that scientists have prepared.

 

When checked by sequencing the bacterial genetic code, the resulting image is exactly the same as the original file, there is only a slight difference in pixels.This is done again by many scientists by inserting everything from songs to poetry into bacteria, and the results remain positive.In addition, it was found that one gram of DNA could contain 455 exabytes, or 455 billion gigabytes.

 

Causes of Bacterial Infection:

Many bacteria are beneficial and needed by the body. Only some of them can cause disease. Infection occurs when harmful bacteria enter the body and multiply rapidly.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Several diseases are caused by bacterial infections, including:

 

    -Antrax, which is caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis.

    -Lyme disease, caused by the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi.

    -Q fever, which is caused by the bacteria Coxiella burnetii.

    -Rheumatic fever, which is caused by the Streptococcus type A bacteria.

    Typhoid fever and paratyphoid fever, which are caused by Salmonella typhi or Salmonella paratyphi

    -Tuberculosis, which is caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

    -Pneumonia, which is caused by the bacteria Streptococcus pneumoniae or Mycoplasma pneumoniae.

    -Vaginosis, which is caused by anaerobic bacteria.

    -Meningitis, which can be caused by a variety of bacteria, including Streptococcus type B, Neisseria meningitidis, and Listeria monocytogenes.

    -Gonorrhea, which is caused by the bacteria Neisseria gonorrhoeae.

 

Bacterial transmission can occur in different ways. Among others are:

 

 

  -Directly.

Bacterial transmission can occur when an infected person sneezes, coughs, kisses, or has sex. Pregnant women can also transmit bacteria to the child who is being conceived through the placenta or contact with the birth canal during delivery.

    -Indirectly.

Bacteria can be left on surrounding objects, such as towels, tables, and door handles. The bacteria contained in these objects can

 

 

move when the object is touched by another person.

    -Through animal bites.

For example, Lyme disease, which is transmitted by tick bites.

 

Bacterial Infection Treatment:

 

Bacterial infections are treated with antibiotics. Antibiotics basically have two main functions, namely to kill bacteria or slow down their reproduction. The doctor will adjust the type of antibiotic according to the symptoms that appear, medical history, the severity of the condition, and the results of the tests performed.

 

Several types of antibiotics, including:

 1. Penicillin

 2.Sefalosporin

 3.Aminoglycosides

 4.Tetracyclines

 5. Macrolides

 6.Quinolone

 

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